Hedgewar and his initial followers during an RSS meeting
Hindutva emerged as a dominant ideology in India promoting the view of the country as the homeland for Hindus with a shared Hindu identity for all inhabitants. Key early proponents included Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and Keshav Hedgewar. Savarkar authored the seminal text "Hindutva: Who is a Hindu?" in 1923 which defined Hindutva and the parameters of Indian nationhood. In this influential work, Savarkar laid out his vision of Hindutva as an ideology seeking to unite all people living in the Indian subcontinent under a shared Hindu identity and culture. He argued that India belonged to those who considered it both their fatherland and holyland. This definition of nationhood was exclusionary towards non-Hindu minority groups like Muslims and Christians.
To propagate these ideas, Keshav Hedgewar founded the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) in 1925 to advocate for Hindu cultural assertions and values through social and cultural organizations. The RSS aimed to strengthen Hindu identity and organize the Hindu population at the grassroots level through cultural and social activities. It advocated the ideology of Hindutva under leaders like Hedgewar and later M.S. Golwalkar, who authored the influential book "We, or Our Nationhood Defined" in 1938. In this seminal work, Golwalkar further developed Hindutva ideology, propagating his vision of cultural assimilation of religious minorities into the Hindu fold to achieve an organic unity within Indian society and nation based on the dominance of Hindu culture and values.
Alongside the cultural wing represented by RSS, Vinayak Savarkar established the more hardline Hindu Mahasabha political party in 1915. As president of the Hindu Mahasabha from 1937-1943, Savarkar aggressively articulated the party's ideological stance and political commitment to establishing India as a nation exclusively for Hindus. The Hindu Mahasabha rejected secular democracy and any provisions or rights for religious minorities, perceiving these as threatening the interests and dominance of the Hindu majority. Under Savarkar's leadership, it advocated the forcible conversion or eviction of Muslims and other minorities who refused to accept Hindu cultural norms.
In 1948, Nathuram Godse, who some allege had links to the RSS, assassinated Mohandas Gandhi for advocating religious pluralism and minority rights. This assassination of the leading proponent of inclusivity heightened the polarization between proponents of Hindutva and those advocating secular nationalism in independent India. In the following decades, the RSS expanded its reach and gained increasing mass support, especially among urban middle class Hindus. It was involved in major political issues like the Ram Janmabhoomi movement demanding the construction of a Hindu temple on the site of the Babri Masjid mosque in Ayodhya. The RSS also led protests against the Mandal Commission report recommending affirmative action for lower castes in 1990, wishing to maintain upper caste Hindu dominance.
The Ram Janmabhoomi campaign led by the VHP and supported by the BJP and RSS eventually resulted in the destruction of the 16th century Babri Masjid mosque in Ayodhya in 1992, causing widespread communal riots between Hindus and Muslims across India. Hindutva groups claimed the site was the birthplace of the Hindu deity Rama and wished to construct a temple there, despite the presence of the centuries-old mosque.
In 2002, communal violence broke out in Gujarat between Hindus and Muslims, resulting in over 1000 deaths, predominantly of Muslims. There were allegations of complicity by state government authorities governed by the BJP under Chief Minister Narendra Modi in allowing the violence to continue unchecked against Muslims. The Gujarat riots reinforced Muslim fears about the safety and status of minorities under growing Hindutva majoritarianism in Indian politics.
INDIA’S STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 1857-1947 (book). India's struggle for independence from British rule was a protracted and multifaceted movement spanning from the major uprising of 1857 to the nation's independence in 1947. Fueled by economic exploitation, political subjugation, and increasing socio-cultural awareness, the movement evolved from initial moderate appeals to the British government into fervent calls for self-reliance (swadeshi), revolutionary actions, and eventually widespread non-violent civil disobedience under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. While religious divisions sadly culminated in the Partition of India and Pakistan, the Indian freedom struggle serves as a monumental example of human resilience, strategic diversity, and the unrelenting pursuit of self-determination in the face of colonialism.
The Agenda behind changing school textbooks with Prof. Mridula Mukherjee (video). In an interview, Historian Mridula Mukherjee speaks about the need to revise history textbooks that had come under RSS influence presenting a one-sided communal view of the past. RSS-affiliated textbooks projected a singular Hindu nationalist viewpoint that excluded diversity. They glorified violent militancy and depicted minorities in stereotypical ways. Controversies arose as Hindu right saw it as erasing Hindu heritage. But Mukherjee says India's history is multi-layered and presenting factual social realities doesn't undermine nationalism.
Essentials of Hindutva . In his book 'Essentials of Hindutva' published in 1923, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar further expounded on his Hindutva ideology. He argued that Hinduism was not just a religion but a race and culture. Savarkar promoted the idea of 'Hinduness' based on a common nation (pitribhumi), race and culture, defining the Hindu nation as comprising those who regard India as their fatherland and holy land. He delineated Hindus as not just those practicing the Hindu religion but all who subscribed to Hindu culture and heritage. Savarkar asserted that minorities like Muslims and Christians could not claim equal citizenship rights since their holy lands were outside India. He called for political, social and religious unity of all Hindus for India's nation building under the umbrella of Hindutva as a dominant majority ethos.
We Or Our Nationhood Defined M. S. Golwalkar . In his book 'We Or Our Nationhood Defined' published in 1939, MS Golwalkar, the second Sarsanghchalak of the RSS, expanded on the Hindutva ideology earlier defined by Savarkar. Golwalkar emphasized that minority religious groups like Muslims and Christians could not be considered equal citizens in a Hindu rashtra because their holy lands were not within India. He advocated for the assimilation and 'Hinduization' of minorities by abandoning separatist identities and adopting Hindu values. Golwalkar promoted the supremacy of Hindu culture and religion as central to the idea of Indian nationhood. He rejected territorial nationalism in favor of cultural nationalism defined by adherence to Hindu beliefs. Golwalkar's vision was deeply exclusionary of minorities and pushed for political, social and cultural hegemony of the Hindu majority.
Gandhi used to systematically fool people. So we killed him' (interview with Godse). In an exclusive 2002 interview conducted in his dilapidated Mumbai home, 76-year-old Gopal Godse, the brother of Mahatma Gandhi's assassin Nathuram Godse, unapologetically defended the assassination as a patriotic act to save India from the "harm" caused by Gandhi's policies. Expressing unrepentant Hindu nationalist views, Godse believed Gandhi deceived Indians by accepting partition despite promises, and that Muslims could never integrate into a Hindu nation due to religious incompatibility, justifying his brother's actions. Nearly 55 years after being imprisoned for conspiring in the killing, the interview provided a window into Godse's continued advocacy of a radical ideology linking a culturally and politically resurgent Hinduism to Indian national strength, which motivated one of independent India's most notorious acts of political violence.
BJP and Gandhi Symbolism in 2019. India under the BJP is being made to forget Gandhi’s core teachings. But he is still being used as a symbol for programmes like the “Swachh Bharat” mission which aims to clean up the streets, roads and infrastructure of India’s urban and rural areas. India indeed needs clean toilets, streets and neighbourhoods. But Gandhi in Noakhali, as Manubahen described in her diary, cleared with his own hands, the dung and human excreta thrown into the streets by Muslims opposed to his visit. He cut through social prejudice against manual scavenging in an atmosphere of distrust. Gandhi’s idea of cleanliness included the cleansing of hatred from people’s hearts.
Modi Question Documentary episode 1 (BBC). The first episode examines Modi's childhood and early influences, his upbringing in the RSS, the 2002 Gujarat riots that boosted his popularity among Hindus, and his subsequent rise within the BJP to become Chief Minister of Gujarat based on a platform of Hindu nationalism and economic development.
Modi Question Documentary episode 2 (BBC). This episode charts Narendra Modi's political trajectory following his re-election. It probes contentious events like removing Jammu and Kashmir's autonomy, implementing the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA), and the Delhi Riots of 2020. The episode highlights criticisms alleging increased violence against Muslims and questions Modi's government on issues of religious tolerance and secularism. The Indian government has strongly condemned the documentary as biased propaganda, underscoring the highly sensitive and polarizing nature of the topics explored
Dark Truth of IPS Sanjiv Bhatt Case. Sanjiv Bhatt, a former Indian Police Service officer, is famous for alleging then-Chief Minister Narendra Modi's complicity in the 2002 Gujarat riots. These claims were dismissed by a Supreme Court investigation. Bhatt faced controversy, criminal convictions, and eventual dismissal from his position for various offences. His actions highlight the risks whistleblowers often face.
Has India's New Citizenship Law Created A Crisis? | Insight | Full Episode A major humanitarian crisis is unfolding in India after more than 1.9 million people living in India's north-eastern state of Assam were left out of the National Register of Citizens (NRC). Has the Narendra Modi government gone too far with its new citizenship law? What will be the future of those rendered stateless in India?.
Parallelisms to Pakistan
Violent Extremism in Pakistan - Roots, Growth & Support (documentary). Violence in Pakistan has seen a dramatic rise against Muslim and non Muslim minorities. In this documentary we examine the roots of this phenomena, looking at the role of different leaderships as well as outside influence. We travel the length and breadth of Pakistan and meet affected families from a number of religious backgrounds to hear their story.
The Plight of Pakistan’s Hindu Minority (discussion - Hudson Institute).
Hindus comprise approximately 2 percent of Pakistan’s 210 million population and live primarily in the southern province of Sindh, which for centuries has been a religious melting pot. In recent years, reports by civil society organizations, international human rights groups, and even the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan have documented a rise in the forced conversion of Hindus in Pakistan—especially by targeting young Hindu girls through forced marriages and kidnappings. What can be done to stop this religious persecution? Join Hudson Institute for this important discussion.
Fascism Viewed from the Right (evolva). This book provides a philosophical foundation for far-right and fascist ideologies. Evola presents a romanticized, traditionalist perspective rejecting democracy, equality, and modernity.
Hindu Mysticism and the Alt-Right. alt-right groups emphasize notions of racial purity, traditional hierarchies, and a return to a mythic past. They can misinterpret elements of Hinduism to validate these beliefs
The Hindutava Originated Controversy Around the "Aryan Invasion Theory"
Theories about the origins of populations in the Indian subcontinent are highly contested. The older Aryan Invasion Theory proposed a large-scale migration of Indo-Aryan people into India around 1500 BCE, but this has been revised in favor of the multiple migration theory, suggesting gradual migrations and mixing over time. In contrast, the Hindutava-aligned Out of India Theory posits that Indo-Aryan languages and culture originated in India and spread outward. The role of Adivasis, India's indigenous communities, varies depending on the theory: some frame them as pre-Aryan inhabitants, while others attempt to incorporate them into narratives of a unified ancient Indian culture, minimizing their distinct identities and histories.
The multiple migration theory seems most consistent with the substantial evidence surrounding Adivasi communities. Anthropological and genetic studies reveal the incredible diversity of Adivasi groups, suggesting origins distinct from later migrations. Their languages, often belonging to different language families, support this. Adivasi histories and cultural practices showcase unique connections to specific lands and ecosystems, suggesting long-standing habitation rather than displacement by incoming populations. While the Out of India Theory attempts to incorporate Adivasis, it risks homogenizing their diverse identities and undermining their claims to distinct ancestral territories and traditions.
The multiple migration theory challenges the core tenets of Hindutava ideology. Hindutava promotes the concept of a unified and ancient Hindu civilization originating within India. Acknowledging multiple migrations over time complicates this narrative, introducing distinct cultures and groups that existed outside the traditional Hindu fold. This potentially undermines the idea of a singular, dominant Hindu identity with deep roots in the subcontinent. Additionally, the multiple migration theory's emphasis on the distinct origins and long histories of Adivasi communities can clash with Hindutava's tendency to subsume various groups under a broad Hindu umbrella.
